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The full mathematical formalism of gravitational lensing, like much of general relativity, is mathematically beyond the scope of this course The systems important to dark matter can be approximated quite accurately Assumptions We use the thin lens approximation, as in the diagram, and assume that the lensing material is concentrated in a planeSep 13, 13 · Diagram of three cases of gravitational lensing Einstein ring, Einstein cross and Luminous arcs The shape of the lens and the alignment of the source, the lens and the observer, determines the different distortionsApr 14, 11 · A diagram (not to scale) of how gravitational lensing works (Image credit NASA, ESA & L Calçada) The universe's first galaxies The newfound galaxy's redshift turned out to A Measurement Of The Hubble Constant From Angular Diameter Distances To Two Gravitational Lenses Science Gravitational lensing diagram